“Forever chemicals” is the informal term used to describe a large class of synthetic chemicals called per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). These compounds are characterized by chains of carbon atoms fully or partially bonded to fluorine atoms, forming extremely strong carbon-fluorine (C–F) bonds. This bond is one of the strongest in organic chemistry, making PFAS highly resistant to environmental breakdown processes.
PFAS were first developed in the mid-20th century and became commercially widespread by the 1950s. They are used in a variety of applications, including non-stick cookware, stain-resistant carpets, greaseproof food packaging, waterproof outdoor gear, and firefighting foams. Because of their durability, PFAS compounds are incredibly persistent, earning the moniker “forever chemicals” due to their ability to remain intact in the environment for decades or even centuries.
Some of the most studied PFAS chemicals include perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), both of which have been largely phased out in the United States but continue to linger in the environment and in human and animal tissues.
Why PFAS Persist in the Environment
The persistence of PFAS stems from the strength of the C–F bond, which resists degradation from heat, sunlight, water, and biological processes. Unlike many other pollutants, PFAS do not undergo natural breakdown through hydrolysis, photolysis, or microbial activity. This extraordinary stability means PFAS can remain in the environment for years, decades, or even centuries without changing form.
Once released, PFAS are incredibly mobile. They travel through the environment via air, water, and soil. Airborne PFAS particles can deposit far from their source through atmospheric transport, while water-soluble PFAS can easily migrate into groundwater and surface waters. This explains why PFAS have been detected in rainwater, snowpacks, remote mountain lakes, and even Arctic sea ice.
This widespread mobility is compounded by the fact that PFAS bind poorly to soils and sediments, which means they persist in water sources much longer than other contaminants. Their presence in biosolids, landfill leachate, and industrial wastewater has raised concerns about agricultural reuse, drinking water safety, and the long-term impacts on aquatic ecosystems.
Another layer of concern is bioaccumulation. PFAS compounds accumulate in the tissues of living organisms and do so over time because they are not easily metabolized or excreted. Even small, repeated exposures can lead to dangerously high concentrations in the body. Biomagnification, the increasing concentration of a substance in the tissues of organisms at each successive level in a food chain, means that top predators, including humans, face the greatest health risks.
Health and Ecological Impacts of Forever Chemicals
Numerous studies have identified adverse health effects linked to PFAS exposure, ranging from subtle physiological changes to serious chronic conditions. The list of documented health impacts continues to grow as more research is conducted:
- Elevated cholesterol levels and other metabolic disruptions
- Thyroid hormone disruption, affecting metabolism and growth
- Liver damage and changes in enzyme levels
- Increased risk of kidney and testicular cancer
- Immune suppression, including reduced antibody response to vaccines
- Developmental issues, including low birth weight and delayed growth
Epidemiological studies have highlighted vulnerable populations, especially pregnant women and infants, who are more susceptible to the effects of PFAS due to exposure during critical stages of development. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reports that nearly all Americans have detectable levels of PFAS in their blood, indicating widespread exposure across the population.
The impact on wildlife is equally concerning. Over 600 animal species worldwide, including dolphins, otters, bald eagles, turtles, and polar bears, have shown measurable PFAS levels in their tissues. In some species, high PFAS concentrations have been linked to immune dysfunction, endocrine disruption, altered behavior, and impaired reproductive success. In polar bears, PFAS are associated with hormonal imbalances that may affect cub survival. In alligators, scientists have observed chronic skin lesions and weakened immune responses.
Furthermore, the presence of PFAS in fish, shellfish, and other edible species has implications for food safety and human health. The accumulation of PFAS in aquatic ecosystems disrupts biodiversity and puts pressure on species already threatened by pollution, climate change, and habitat loss.
Challenges in Removing or Destroying PFAS
Addressing PFAS pollution is especially difficult because of the chemical’s stability and solubility. Traditional water and wastewater treatment systems are not designed to capture or break down these resilient molecules. Even advanced treatment systems face limitations:
- Granular Activated Carbon (GAC): Effective primarily for long-chain PFAS like PFOA and PFOS. GAC needs frequent replacement and regeneration, and its efficacy drops when short-chain PFAS or high organic loads are present.
- Ion Exchange Resins: Offer improved selectivity and regeneration capabilities, but they still generate PFAS-laden residuals requiring safe disposal.
- Reverse Osmosis (RO): Can reject a broad spectrum of PFAS but is energy-intensive and produces a concentrated PFAS brine that must be further treated or disposed of.
These methods do not eliminate PFAS. Instead, they concentrate the chemicals into solid or liquid waste that poses its own disposal challenges. This secondary waste, be it spent filters, sludge, or brine, still contains toxic compounds.
Incineration has been tested as a destruction method, but standard waste incinerators may not reach the temperatures and residence times required to reliably break the C–F bonds. Incomplete combustion may produce toxic byproducts, including volatile fluorinated gases. Community concerns over emissions and the need for costly emission controls have also limited its acceptability.
Landfilling PFAS-contaminated materials often leads to long-term leaching, where PFAS re-enter the environment through landfill leachate. This reintroduces the cycle of contamination and creates long-term liabilities for waste operators and municipalities.
Advanced environmental testing and sampling are also vital for tracking contamination and validating the effectiveness of cleanup efforts. Routine PFAS sampling in groundwater, drinking water, and biosolids helps pinpoint problem areas and guide remediation strategies. Without consistent samples and analysis, the scope of contamination and success of treatment technologies cannot be accurately assessed.
The need for more effective, permanent solutions to forever chemicals is clear. Complete mineralization, transforming PFAS into inert compounds like carbon dioxide and fluoride salts, is the gold standard. Achieving this level of destruction requires advanced technologies capable of operating at extremely high temperatures or using powerful chemical reactions that overcome the C–F bond’s resistance.
Promising Technologies for PFAS Destruction
Heartland is at the forefront of innovation in PFAS remediation, particularly with the development of the HelioStorm™ Ionic Plasma Reforming system. Below is an overview of this and other leading technologies:
- HelioStorm™ Ionic Plasma Reforming This proprietary Heartland technology utilizes plasma arcs to generate temperatures between 3,000 and 10,000°C. In this environment, PFAS compounds are atomized, breaking even the strongest chemical bonds. Unlike incinerators, the HelioStorm operates in a controlled, oxygen-limited environment that prevents harmful emissions. Pilot testing has demonstrated assured PFAS destruction at rates greater than 99.9%..
- Supercritical Water Oxidation (SCWO) SCWO involves treating PFAS in water at extremely high temperature and pressure, turning the water into a supercritical fluid. In this state, oxidants like oxygen or hydrogen peroxide rapidly degrade organic molecules, including PFAS.
- Electrochemical Oxidation This method uses specialized electrodes, often boron-doped diamond (BDD), to generate hydroxyl radicals and other oxidizing species that attack PFAS molecules. These systems operate at ambient pressure and moderate temperatures, making them suitable for point-source treatment of relatively clean water.
- Photocatalytic and Mechanochemical Techniques Photocatalysis uses light-activated materials to degrade PFAS. These processes are still in the research phase but show potential for solar-powered PFAS remediation. Mechanochemical methods, which apply mechanical energy (e.g., ball milling) combined with reactive additives, have demonstrated success in breaking PFAS bonds in solid waste.
- Other Emerging Approaches Researchers are also investigating bioelectrochemical degradation, sonochemical treatment, and hybrid technologies that combine methods (e.g., filtration plus plasma). These methods aim to address the limitations of existing systems and offer scalable, cost-effective solutions.
Real-World PFAS Contamination and Response
The scale of PFAS contamination is sobering and increasingly well-documented. Major contamination events have unfolded across a variety of industries and communities:
- Communities: In Parkersburg, West Virginia, DuPont’s discharge of PFOA into the Ohio River and surrounding communities led to a landmark class-action lawsuit and a scientific health study involving tens of thousands of residents. In North Carolina, Chemours’ release of GenX and other PFAS into the Cape Fear River affected drinking water for over 200,000 residents. These events raised national awareness and brought PFAS to the forefront of environmental health discussions.
- Military Bases: Across the U.S., firefighting foams containing PFAS (AFFF) have been used extensively for training and emergency response at military installations. Bases like Willow Grove Naval Air Station in Pennsylvania and Pease Air Force Base in New Hampshire have seen significant groundwater contamination. The Department of Defense has identified hundreds of bases with PFAS contamination, with projected cleanup costs reaching into the tens of billions of dollars.
- Industrial Facilities: Facilities involved in chrome plating, textile finishing, and paper manufacturing have contributed significantly to PFAS pollution. Wastewater discharges from these industries often carry PFAS directly into rivers and lakes. For instance, in Michigan, PFAS contamination from industrial sources has been detected in fish and surface waters throughout the state.
Public response to these events has been strong and multifaceted. Residents have pursued legal action, demanded transparency, and advocated for policy change. In many affected areas, governments have provided bottled water, installed home filtration systems, and conducted blood testing to monitor exposure. States like Michigan, Minnesota, and Maine have become national leaders in establishing enforceable PFAS limits, funding remediation projects, and banning PFAS in consumer goods and firefighting foams. These localized efforts serve as models for nationwide reform.
The Role of Innovation and Policy in PFAS Cleanup
As public pressure mounts and scientific understanding deepens, PFAS policy and remediation efforts are advancing in tandem:
- Regulatory Movement: The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has proposed maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) for several PFAS compounds in drinking water, aiming to set enforceable federal standards for the first time. These limits are being finalized in 2025 and will require municipalities and water utilities to regularly monitor and treat PFAS-contaminated water. At the same time, over a dozen U.S. states have adopted or proposed their own PFAS limits, with varying degrees of stringency.
- International Action: The European Union is pursuing a comprehensive restriction on all non-essential uses of PFAS under REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals). If adopted, this policy could phase out thousands of PFAS compounds across industries and applications.
- Technology Deployment: On the innovation side, companies like Heartland are scaling up field-ready PFAS destruction systems. Technologies like the HelioStorm™ Ionic Plasma Reforming system are being deployed for on-site waste treatment, reducing the need to transport hazardous waste and allowing communities to address contamination at the source. Modular and scalable by design, these systems are ideal for utilities, municipalities, and military contractors tackling concentrated PFAS waste.
- Funding and Liability: The EPA’s move to designate PFOA and PFOS as hazardous substances would open the door for polluter accountability. Manufacturers and users of PFAS could be required to pay for site investigations, water treatment, and long-term cleanup costs.
Together, innovation and policy are creating a framework for lasting change. Scientific breakthroughs in destruction technologies, when combined with legal mechanisms and regulatory incentives, can transform how we manage legacy PFAS pollution and prevent future harm.
A Path Forward
PFAS contamination is one of the most complex and widespread environmental challenges of our time. But with rising awareness, expanding regulation, and a wave of technological innovation, there is a clear path forward.
Heartland is contributing to this effort with its advanced HelioStorm™ plasma technology, offering complete and scalable PFAS destruction. This system represents a turning point in how we think about and manage these persistent pollutants.
To truly eliminate “forever chemicals,” we must:
- Phase out non-essential uses of PFAS
- Strengthen regulatory standards at all levels
- Invest in innovative, permanent destruction methods
- Monitor environmental and health impacts continuously
- Enforce polluter accountability through litigation and legislation
By pursuing these goals with urgency and collaboration, we can mitigate PFAS risks and protect both ecosystems and human health.
Further Reading & Resources
- NIEHS PFAS Overview
- National Academies of Science PFAS Exposure Report:
- EPA PFAS Incineration Guidance
